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Thailand ( Siam ) History as understood by a Farang. Below is a short 'synopsis interpretation' of the Thai historical events listed in this Thai Timeline Chart Scattered throughout Thailand are ancient walled cities and huge elaborate ancient temples.   Ancient stone 'castle like' temples and walled cities provide an inspiring reminder to the level of advancement that the ancient Thai and Khmer civilizations attained.

Lore of Thai Kings and Burmese Princes settling national disputes through Elephant Jousting in 1593.

Nice Hotels from us$15/ night, 45 hotels w/ free WiFi..

Thailand had functional transportation canals & was known as the Venice of the East

Mekong family's 21st Century SUV

The canals / "klongs" provide extremely functional transportation in the 21st century.

Today's Thai people can boast of an archeologically documented societal / ethnic linage dating back over 6000 years

The Thai / Khmer kings built  incredible Palaces / Temples with serious decorative embellishments.

You will see things in Amazing Thailand that you will never forget.

In the 21st century Democratic Thailand has a strong economy and has accepted it's role as a world leader.

• Since 1996 Thailand has had a positive balance of trade with both China & the US.

• 2004: Thailand provided the 10th largest contingent to the Iraq coalition.

Bangkok is a modern cosmopolitan city .. with 6 star hotels .. & $100 per month rooms.

September 19, 2006.  Thailand Military Coup D' Etat .. The Army was actually greeted with flowers!    :-)

King Rama IX is the most powerful man in Thailand. King Rama IX is held to the esteem of a deity & is truly loved by the Thai people.   Yellow ribbons on the Coup D'Etat's tanks signify loyalty to the king.

In 1932 Thailand became, & remains, a constitutional monarchy instead of an absolute monarchy.

• In the past 75 years Thailand has had 17 constitutions & 18 Coups!

• July 5, 2007. The Military Junta has approved a new constitution. The new constitution severely limits the power of the Prime Minister & is in effect an anti-Thaksin constitution, taking aim at precisely the abuses the former prime minister is charged with.

  • Copies of Thailand's 17th constitution in 75 years are to be distributed to every Thai  household ahead of the proposed August referendum.

"do not sell you vote" billboard

The Thai Constitutional Election was held on Dec. 23, 2007 Reports from rural Issan of politicians offering Viagra for votes!  "the stand up & vote party" January 1, 2008: Thaksin's Party, PPP, won the most seats but not a majority. Thaksin by proxy: People Power Party is working to form a coalition government.  Will the Junta allow the Thaksin clique to return to power? The Coup D' Etat's Junta continues to threaten Thaksin with arrest over allegations of corruption in a land deal .. not over allegations of government misfeasance.

• The junta produced proposed constitution is a topic of great political discussion in the Fall of '07.

• King Rama IX is the longest reigning monarch on the planet, he has held on to his throne for 60 years ..  through 15 constitutions & 20 prime ministers.

  • June, 2006 was Rama IX's 60th anniversary as King.  Rama IX celebrated his 80th birthday in 2007.

The 21st century Thai name for western foreigners is Farang,

• There are several 'versions' of where Thai common usage for Caucasian as "Farang" or "Falang"

  • I subscribe to the theory that Farang is an abbreviation of the original Farangse - the Thai word for the French (François in French).

  • Another well accepted theory is that Farang is derived from an Ancient Persian word for 'foreigner'.

• The term Farang had a negative connotation until after World War II.

King Nairi's resistance to Dutch aggression in the 16th century was the beginning of the Thai's victorious 300 year fight to avoid brutal European colonial domination.

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Bronze Age & Iron Age tribal and regional chiefdoms led to the rather sophisticated Dvaravati and Angkor states which evolved into the modern kingdom of Thailand.

• Pottery shards bearing the imprint of both grains and husks of rice were discovered at Non Nok Tha near Korat dating from at least 4000 B.C. (6000 years ago)

• The pottery shards found at the Non Nok Tha site are amongst the world's oldest.

Ban Chang is reputed to be the world's oldest bronze age culture. The Bronze age community, 3600 BC, of Ban Chang covered a hill & was continuously occupied for more than 3000 years. Graves dated to 3600 B.C. have produced bronze bracelets, bells and spearheads. Thai bronze was made with tin ( lots of tin in SE Asia) & was actually superior to the Mesopotamian bronze that required the use of toxic arsenic. There is a comprehensive museum at the Ban Chang site. The hamlet of Ban Chang is near Udon Thani, Issan.  In the northern part of the Eastern Region of Thailand. Early Chinese people learned how to make bronze from the Thai.  The word for copper in several dialects of Chinese is "tong", the same word used in the oldest Southeast Asian languages.

Driving from Bangkok, Korat marks the beginning of Issan Region of East Thailand.

Thai Highways provide an excellent road trip experience.  The Thai highways are relatively well maintained.  Plenty of road side stops, 7-11s, McDonalds, 5 star restaurants, thatched roof hooch bars & rural temples .. w/ occasional national parks or towns to explore.

• At Ban Chang archeologists have unearthed iron spearheads, knives and bracelets dating to 1600 B.C.

• Ban Chang is a short day drive on modern highway from Korat near Udon Thani.

• The Ban Chang site is now protected by the Thai government.

• Previously local relic hunters actually undermined a highway near the site.

The world's first domestic cultivation of rice was in Issan near today's Korat, Issan.

• The indigenous Thai discovered rice cultivation for the world.

• The Thai words for meal & rice are the same, 'kow'.

• 2006: Thailand is the world's leading exporter of rice.  Vietnam is #2.

  • Thailand exported slightly over 8 million tons of rice in 2006.

• 2007:  Many traditional varieties of rice have disappeared in favor of higher yielding, globalized  & mostly tasteless varieties. 

  • The ultra fragrant Pin Kaew variety that was named the best rice in the world in 1966 is no longer cultivated & no seeds were preserved.

  • Since 1982 over 17,000 ( ! ) varieties of traditional Thai rice have been preserved by the Thai National Rice Seeds Storage Laboratory for Genetic Resources which was initially financed by Japan.  A seed bank in Manila has preserved over 100,000 varieties of Asian rice.

The indigenous Southeast Asians had agriculture and pottery at the same time as the city-states of ancient Mesopotamia.

• History books generally attribute the first iron age culture to the Hittites of ancient Turkey / Mesopotamia.

• Thai iron objects are just as old as anything the Hittites produced.

Day trips in a Taxi with a selected driver is an excellent alternative to guided tours & tour vans .. way better than a tour van! ( tour vans mostly suck) Taxis are available for about 3000 THB ( $75US,$90AUS, 60 EUs ) per day .. make sure the taxi is highway worthy, the A/C cold .. w/ perhaps a working cassette.  No guarantee the driver has a clue about anything... carefully select your taxi driver! I wonder what % of Bangkok taxis have broken cassette players much less CD? No taxis are available outside Bangkok, only Tuk Tuks & pickups are available in rural areas. For 4000 THB ( to taxi daily rate add: $25.US, $30AUS, 20EU) have a bilingual professional guide in a luxury Volvo. Issan train station 'taxi que'.

A recommended limo service is Swasdee Limousine Tel: +66 6-533-4822   Fax:+66 2-928-4655  Email:   alann@asianet.co.th Airport - Sukhumvet  Thb600     Ayuttaya RT 1500     Hua Hin 1 way 2500

The  water buffalo was domesticated to pull plows in about 1600 BC. The buffalo remains a primary beast of burden in Issan. Very often you will hear a Lao or Khmen (of Issan) in Bangkok speak of buying their Issan family another water buffalo.

The T'ai also settled Burma and Vietnam & remain a dominate ethnic group in southwestern China, south of the Yangtze River ( 3 Gorges Dam fame ).

• There is ongoing discussion as to whether the T'ai originated in southern China or northern Vietnam.  

• Pre modern geopolitical boundaries this area was not divided.

• South of the Yangtze River 2 rivers flow from south-central China to the sea, the Mekong & Salween.

The Mekong River extends along a 4500 km ( 3000 mile ) course, beginning in the glaciers of Tibet & flowing through China, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam& finally the South China Sea. Mekong water use south of China, (Burma Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam) is regulated by the Mekong River Commission (MRC).  China opted out & the huge river dams in China are an issue. 2008.  The new Thai government, formed after the coup & the Constitution elections of late 2007, is discussing diverting water from the Mekong to supply farmers in the Thai Northeast.  Diverting water form a river managed by an International Commission is easier proposed by "grandstanding politicians" than actualized. More reservoirs to capture rainy season run off is a far better option & avoids international regulators. 2006: More than 65 million persons live along its banks. In communities downstream of China the Mekong provides 80 per cent of the protein. 20 million persons earn their lively hood fishing the Mekong. 1992 - 2006: A series of Chinese hydroelectric / irrigation dams on the Mekong are seriously effecting river flow during the dry season.  A total of 12 huge Chinese dams for irrigation & hydro electric. April, 2004.  Mekong River closed to commercial river shipping.  River is less than 1 meter ( 3' ) deep in sections. Feb, 2007.  Fishing the Mekong can no longer support a family.  Lao fishermen in northern Issan report many days with a 0 catch.  :-(

• The Salween River flows southwest into Burma, is the Thai / Burmese border & finally the Andaman Sea / Indian Ocean.

  • 2006: There are 13 hydroelectric / irrigation dams planned for the Salween.

  • 5 Thai & 5 Chinese dams.

    • A pollution free renewable resource has a lot of pluses!

    • Consensus of opinion is that the dams will devastate downstream minority communities.

    • 2007: Current estimate is 83,000 hill tribe individuals will be displaced.

• These 2 rivers drain 10s of 1000s of sq miles of rain forest, huge rivers!

The Indian / Hindu immigration began in about the 1st century. 01 AD.

• The Indian / Hindu immigration followed the coast of the Andaman Sea south down the Malay Peninsula (to Indonesia) & east along the coast of the Gulf of Thailand (to Cambodia) into the southern region of Issan.

• The Khmen of south eastern Issan are heavily influenced by Hindu genetics & culture.

Chinese Lao settled along the Mekong beginning in about 1500 AD.

• The Lao immigration was during the same period as initial contact with Europeans were being made.

• The Lao of Chinese decent melded into the indigenous population, did not try to dominate or colonize.

• The Lao remain an important part of Thai culture in Issan.

• Around Udon, eastern Issan, the Lao are the dominate ethnic group.

• The far eastern regions of the Korat Plateau / Issan are more of 'Lao' culture.

• In the Udon area a "Lao dialect" is common.

The immigrants from 2 distant geographic regions melding with the indigenous people of a third distinct geographic region.

• The spread and natural convergence of people with extremely diverse genetic, cultural, lingual and religious backgrounds.

• By the tenth century the Mons, from what is today Burma, had established themselves in Central Thailand and had established small Buddhist kingdoms in an area from Nakhon Pathon to Chiang Mai.

  • Along the northwestern side of the Central Valley, north of the Chao Praya River, adjacent to Burma.

  • Mon is spoken by Burmese hill tribes.  Ethnic Mon tribes continue to live in the hills of Southern Burma.

  • The Mon ( Burmese ) influence ( genetic & cultural ) remains more dominate in the north, Chiang Mai / Golden Triangle.

  • The Mons ( along with the Karen ) are currently involved in a civil war against the ruthless Myanmar Communist government.

• The Buddhism introduced by the Mons has melded with indigenous beliefs and thus evolved into today's Thai version of Buddhism.

  • Thai Buddhism is a unique form of Buddhism & many Hindu practices are present in the Thai culture.

• The Khmer ( in Thai: Khmen = Cambodian ) influence remains more dominate ( genetic & cultural ) east of the Central Valley on the Korat Plateau nearer the Cambodian & Lao borders.

  • Historically the Khmer dominated from Central Valley east & south to Eastern Laos & Northern Cambodia.

  • Along a line from Korat to Buri Ram to Surin to Ubon, southwestern Issan .. the Khmen are the dominate ethnic group.  The Khmer influence continues on the Korat Plateau near the borders with southwestern Laos & eastern Cambodia.

  • Khmen language is very common in Surin and Buri Ram.

  • Thai script is a combination of Khmen & Mon script.

  • Khmen is spoken in southwestern Issan today.

Modern Thai architecture is heavily influenced by Northern Thai ( Lanna Thai ) style

For the past 800 years Thailand has remained relatively free of colonial or regional domination. 

1238 the first independent Thai state.    The "Dawn of Happiness", Sukhothai, was established  in North Central Thailand.

 

First Thai Kingdom without Khmer ( Cambodian ) domination. Sukhothai, in the North Central region of present Thailand. Sukhothai is at the outer northern region of the Khmer Kingdom. Sukhothai is at the outer southeastern region of the Mon Kingdoms. Sukhothai is now a 'sleepy rural city', 'that could be visited' on your way to Chiang Mai.  Well off the beaten path. A few small historical / archeological sites are preserved.

"Dawn of Happiness", pretty cool name for a country!

• Language contains concepts that are not translatable.

• The Thai concept expressed by the sound Sukhothai is not literally translatable into English.

Thai language, like Chinese & Vietnamese, has pitches or is multi-tonal (same enunciation w/ different pitch = different word).
Khmen language is mono-tonal.

• Farangs learning Thai say the funniest things, wrong choice of pitch can result in a drastically different meaning.

• My Texas drawl often does terrible things to the Thai language .. Imagine George Bush speaking Thai .. :-)

• Remember, English written words representing Thai script are generally 'British English' phonic representations of the spoken Thai language..say the Thai you read with a British accent ..but, please, not cockney.

The archeological sites at Ayutthaya & Chon Buri are nice day trips from Bangkok.

Ayutthaya ( 90+ minute taxi ride from Bangkok, taxis available for 3000 BT for the day ) is beautiful & awesome, but ( in my humble opinion ) more represents Khmer architecture.

• At it's zenith the city state of Ayutthaya, 1350 - 1767,  was among the largest & most cosmopolitan cities in the world.

• The Burmese plundered / burned Ayutthaya in 1767, so there are more ruins than complete temples / governmental palaces.

  • :-( , it must have been quite a city before the events of 1767.

• Stone( all that was not stone burned ) Ayutthayan temples are scattered over a very large area, throughout most the small modern city of Ayutthaya.

  • Driving down many streets in Ayutthaya you pass incredible ruins of what were once magnificent temples.

  • Scattered amongst current homes are ancient stone ruins!

• The most famous of the Ayutthaya sites is 110% commercialized & is the site of  King Rama IX's summer palace.

  • This primary Ayutthaya site / park is huge, scattered & fully commercialized. 

  • Beautifully landscaped & maintained.

They have some true 'clipper artists' taking care of the King's Summer Palace. Huge parking lots full of tour buses. Full amenities & facilities on site. A traditional Thai meal served on the bank of the Chao Praya River surrounded by ancient stone architecture is certainly memorable. Outside the main for fee park's front gate, Rama IX's summer palace .. facing the 'front gate bus parking area'.. go to the left side & past the private car parking area.. less than 100 meters.. to an open air lunch area ( not a special for tourist kinda place ) situated on the river across from an ancient Buddhist temple. Monks in saffron robes cross the river to the temple in a suspended 'open air gondola'.

The tours WILL NOT / CANNOT take you to any non-commercialized locations, no place to park the tour bus!

• The Ayutthayan site across the Chao Praya from the King's mom's summer palace is particularly awesome.

  • Beautiful view across the river & the King's mum likes her quite & privacy.  So NO buses!

  • Any guide worth his wages knows the site.

• This is a HUGE & SCATTERED group of separate sites!

  • If it were me, I'd find a knowledgeable guide in Bangkok & negotiate a flat rate "per day" trip.

  • Can be done in one day, but really needs more time than that.

• Several locations have been restored, the ruins repaired to match the original buildings.

• Many other locations have not been restored or only partially restored & will require some imagination to realize what was there before the Burmese turned as much of it to rubble as they could.

• To totally destroy an entire city.. destruction of such magnitude, multiple huge stone temples . without bull dozers..  it must have been quite a demolition project!

• The Burmese destruction of  Ayutthaya in 1767 resulted in the loss of all official Thai government paperwork & records.

Thailand was known as the Venice of the East.

Highly Recommended: A/C luxury motor launch to Ayutthaya.

• See the ancient site from the river instead of the street.

• The river & canals were the Primary Transportation system for the ancient City.  

• Via boat, on the river & canals is how the citizens of Ayutthaya saw the temples.  

• The temples were designed to be accessed from the river / canals!

In 1767 the Thai capital was moved to Thon Buri, across the Chao Praya River from today's Bangkok.

• It was determined that the Ayutthaya location, easily accessed from the ocean via the Chao Praya River & transversed by the planned & functional transportation canals, was not easily defended!

• The canals worked for the society & commerce but not for military defense.

During the period from 1350 (Ayutthaya) to 1769 ( Thon Buri ) the Thai society & architecture distanced itself from the Khmer influence.

You will see architectural similarity between the Ancient Site at Chon Buri Sukhumvit & temples in Bangkok Sukhumvit!

• Thon Buri is the site that the Thai capital was moved to after the Burmese destroyed the City State of Ayutthaya in 1769.

• Bangkok was founded when King Rama I moved the city across the Chao Praya River from Thon Buri in 1782.

• The  Chon Buri Sukhumvit Ancient Site sculptures & temples are well preserved.

• A few miles ( 45 minute taxi ride from central Bangkok, 1000 THB taxi fare for several hours ) from the modern cosmopolitan city that is Bangkok is the less ancient but well preserved Ancient Site. 

• The Ancient Site historical park is well maintained & has limited facilities. 

• On the days I have been there, this Ancient Site historical park has been all but empty.  

  • Not a tour bus in sight! :-)

• Eat a traditional ( Note I mention food at each location! ) Thai meal in a traditional rural Thai setting.

  • Where ever you go in Thailand there are food vendors. :-)

  • I've never resisted Thai 'cart cuisine' & have never had 'digestive problems'.

Khmer sites, 1000 AD, in southern Buri Ram province / Issan ( near the Cambodian border ) are far from the beaten path.  2 hours west of the Korat - Buri Ram City - Surin railway / highway on red dirt roads are scattered ancient fort / temples, mostly un-restored & very near the Cambodian border. 

• Elaborate sites are scattered all the way to Angkor Wat, Cambodia (no easily accessed border crossing or 'improved' roads)

Beginning in the early 16th century the European  competition for colonial Empire left the Thai in conflict with the European Colonialists & Hegemonists.

Relatively unique globally Amazing Thailand avoided being an European colony.

The Dutch were negotiated out, the French were thrown out, the British were bought out, the Japanese were nuked out & the Americans voted themselves out

  ...  but they're all back on vacation now ;-).

music video on myspace.. : Jeff & Soi Dog do traditional Blues .. Blues  sung in Thai (Way Cool!)

Soi Dog live music video, Hey Joe, from the Phuket Blues Festival .. also on myspace.

There were also sporadic continuations of on going disputes ( err, wars ) with Vietnam & Burma during this period.

Vasco de Gama rounded the (South African) Cape of Good Hope and sailed across the Indian Ocean in 1498.

• The fate of the entire non European world became one of conflict with the Europeans and their dreams of colonial empire.

• Colonial economic and political policy was designed to milk ( = steal / rob / plunder ) the colony of it's resources & enrich the 'mother country'.

• The first Europeans to reach Thailand were the Portuguese in 1511.

• Followed in rapid succession by the Dutch, the English, the Spanish, and the French traders.

• From that first Farang step forward, things became complicated for the Thai Kings

• The Spanish made the Philippines their regional capital, the French focused on Indochina, the Dutch were occupied with Indonesia while the Brits ruled over Malaysia & 'most' everything west of Thailand all the way to the Mediterranean Sea.

• Thailand was an island of soverngnty in an area spanning 1/3 of the globe.

• & Thailand remains an island of sanity in that huge geographic region today!

If the reader should choose .. this "Thailand History" page has now been divided into 3 sections. Thailand History:  The Thai People    > Thailand History: Bronze Age - 1511Thailand History: 1511 - 2006.

Thai proverb, "the tree that bends with the wind is the tree that survives the storm"

King Narai

The ever so wise Thai kings of the Ayutthayan period offered small trade concessions & grants to avoid all out colonial hostilities.  From 1600 - 1941 the Thai Kings were engaged in constantly increasing & shifting demands from the European builders of world colonial empires. Even though the Dutch had a generous trade agreement they wanted to dominate & control Thai imports / exports. Apparently deer & cow hides were hot items The Dutch had been allowed to set up a processing plant in Thailand but that was not enough. The Thai King was resistant to paying homage to the Dutch King. Thankfully, King Narai stood up to the colonialist. The Dutch then took 'war like action' capturing a Thai merchant vessel in the Gulf of Thailand & blockading the mouth of the Chao Praya River. When King Narai resisted the 'standard European colonial style armed robbery' the Dutch upped the threat.In 1688 King Narai developed a desperate relationship with the French (Thankfully short lived!), the French helped control the Dutch aggression. The bar at the Narai Hotel Silom is one of my favorite stops.

1st it was the Dutch whose demands became unreasonable (more & more generous trade agreements) & King Narai finally resisted the increasing Dutch colonial demands for domination of the Thai trade options.

• The 'quick' 7 month dangerous sea voyage around Africa to communicate with the French meant that events happened in slow motion compared to today's millisecond communication.

• Rounding the cape of Good Hope, where the Atlantic Ocean & Indian Ocean currents collide presents some of the most violent 'ocean swell action' on this planet.  Modern hull 1000'+ oil tankers bounce like corks, cannot imagine what a 100' rounded wooden hulled top heavy sailing vessel was like.

  • OK, I'll stop complaining about the 14 hours in tourist (cattle car?) class.

• The purpose of Ambassador Kosapan's mission to Versailles was to offer a trading post to Louis XIV in Singor (now Songkhla) in southern Siam, where the Compagnie des Indes Orientales and a handful of troops would establish themselves and provide a counterweight to the all-powerful Dutch.

• King Louie XIV dispatched 1400 troops to Ayutthaya.

• The ever so gracious Dutch politely agreed to return to the originally negotiated agreement.

• Thank goodness the French had their eye on the colonial-ization of Thailand.

Score:  Thailand  1   Colonialist  0

The Thai then severed relations with the French to avoid becoming the last piece for a 100% French Indochina.

Score:  Thailand   2   Colonialist  0

• King Louie's attempt to Christianize King Narai was perceived as subversive by the Thai people.

  

• The Thai people revolted against the 'French dependant' Thai government's position.  

• The 21st century Thai name for western foreigners is Farang, an abbreviation of the original Farangse - the Thai word for the French (François in French). The term Farang had a negative connotation until after World War II. 

• King Narai was a displaced ruler when he died 2 months after the 'revolt'. 

• 1688, Sep 30 - All French troops leave Siam after negotiations with the new Siamese king, Phra Petraja.  Phra Petraja takes European missionaries as hostages, pending the safe return of a Siamese embassy still in Europe. 

• 1689, Dec - The Siamese embassy to Europe returns & the honorable King Phra Petraja releases all his European hostages and restores religious freedom but implements a policy of eliminating foreign political influence in the kingdom. 

• 1698, Oct - A French envoy is sent to Ayutthaya with the offer of a new treaty, but the offer is declined by King Phra Petraja. France gives up her political interest in Ayutthaya.

King Phra Petraja closed Thailand's doors to the west for over 100 years.

Score:  Thailand   3   Colonialist  0

• Between 1824 & 1884 there were 3 Anglo-Burmese wars.

• Significant that none of these wars occurred in 'Anglo land'.

  • This is one reason I am offended by the current usage of  'Anglo' in 21st century America.

  • The silly Burmese resisted brutal British colonial domination. 

• The ever so wise Thai King immediately granted the British Empire land concessions on the Malay Peninsula & the land hungry colonialists were gratified.

• A few million rai sacrificed  for good of the realm.

• Thailand could easily have been devastated by brutal British colonialism .. but the wisdom & foresight of the King kept the realm intact!

• Again the wisdom of the Thai King kept the realm mostly intact!

By granting land to the colonialist the Thai King avoided war.

In American baseball it's called a 'sacrifice bunt'... run scores.

Score:  Thailand   4   Colonialist  0

• Thailand had actually declared war on the British Tea Company, British National Opium Distribution, 100 years earlier.

  • The British Government's  "Tea Company" was the first international drug cartel.  Spreading opium from one milked colony to their other 'valued colonial possessions'.

  • The first international drug lord was the British King.

  • Seems I've read that opium poppies are 'milked' of the opium .. & The British Empire was certainly for any colonial milking it could achieve.

  • Keeping the British Empire at bay was like controlling 21st century hooligans at the World Cup!

• Much like modern day fast food, the immediate gratification of the 'Thai Fast  No War Land Lane' quickly satisfied the Empires land hunger. 

  • The "super sized colonial edict land order" was transmitted through an extremely functional British cannon barrel.

  • Unfortunately, more traditional Burma only offered 'sit down land'.